This invention relates to electro-optic displays and backplanes for use in such displays. More specifically, in one aspect this invention relates to such backplanes provided with areas of low dielectric constant and/or high resistivity between adjacent pixels. This invention also relates to electro-optic displays incorporating such backplanes. In another aspect, this invention relates to electro-optic displays, and components thereof, which are designed to eliminate non-imaging areas between adjacent pixels caused by low resolution processes used to produce backplanes.
Electro-optic displays comprise a layer of electro-optic material, a term which is used herein in its conventional meaning in the imaging art to refer to a material having first and second display states differing in at least one optical property, the material being changed from its first to its second display state by application of an electric field to the material. Although the optical property is typically color perceptible to the human eye, it may be another optical property, such as optical transmission, reflectance, luminescence or, in the case of displays intended for machine reading, pseudo-color in the sense of a change in reflectance of electromagnetic wavelengths outside the visible range.
The electro-optic displays of the present invention typically contain an electro-optic material which is a solid in the sense that the electro-optic material has solid external surfaces, although the material may, and often does, have internal liquid or gas-filled spaces, and to methods for assembling displays using such an electro-optic material. Such displays using solid electro-optic materials may hereinafter for convenience be referred to as “solid electro-optic displays”. Thus, the term “solid electro-optic displays” includes rotating bichromal member displays (see below), gas-based electrophoretic displays, encapsulated electrophoretic displays, microcell electrophoretic displays and encapsulated liquid crystal displays.
The terms “bistable” and “bistability” are used herein in their conventional meaning in the art to refer to displays comprising display elements having first and second display states differing in at least one optical property, and such that after any given element has been driven, by means of an addressing pulse of finite duration, to assume either its first or second display state, after the addressing pulse has terminated, that state will persist for at least several times, for example at least four times, the minimum duration of the addressing pulse required to change the state of the display element. It is shown in published U.S. Patent Application No. 2002/0180687 that some particle-based electrophoretic displays capable of gray scale are stable not only in their extreme black and white states but also in their intermediate gray states, and the same is true of some other types of electro-optic displays. This type of display is properly called “multi-stable” rather than bistable, although for convenience the term “bistable” may be used herein to cover both bistable and multi-stable displays.
Several types of electro-optic displays are known. One type of electro-optic display is a rotating bichromal member type as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,808,783; 5,777,782; 5,760,761; 6,054,07 16,055,091; 6,097,531; 6,128,124; 6,137,467; and 6,147,791 (although this type of display is often referred to as a “rotating bichromal ball” display, the term “rotating bichromal member” is preferred as more accurate since in some of the patents mentioned above the rotating members are not spherical). Such a display uses a large number of small bodies (typically spherical or cylindrical) which have two or more sections with differing optical characteristics, and an internal dipole. These bodies are suspended within liquid-filled vacuoles within a matrix, the vacuoles being filled with liquid so that the bodies are free to rotate. The appearance of the display is changed by applying an electric field thereto, thus rotating the bodies to various positions and varying which of the sections of the bodies is seen through a viewing surface. This type of electro-optic medium is typically bistable.
Another type of electro-optic display uses an electrochromic medium, for example an electrochromic medium in the form of a nanochromic film comprising an electrode formed at least in part from a semi-conducting metal oxide and a plurality of dye molecules capable of reversible color change attached to the electrode; see, for example O'Regan, B., et al., Nature 1991, 353, 737; and Wood, D., Information Display, 18(3), 24 (March 2002). See also Bach, U., et al., Adv. Mater., 2002, 14(11), 845. Nanochromic films of this type are also described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,301,038, International Application Publication No. WO 01/27690, and in U.S. Patent Application 2003/0214695. This type of medium is also typically bistable.
Another type of electro-optic display, which has been the subject of intense research and development for a number of years, is the particle-based electrophoretic display, in which a plurality of charged particles move through a suspending fluid under the influence of an electric field. Electrophoretic displays can have attributes of good brightness and contrast, wide viewing angles, state bistability, and low power consumption when compared with liquid crystal displays. Nevertheless, problems with the long-term image quality of these displays have prevented their widespread usage. For example, particles that make up electrophoretic displays tend to settle, resulting in inadequate service-life for these displays.
As noted above, electrophoretic media require the presence of a suspending fluid. In most prior art electrophoretic media, this suspending fluid is a liquid, but electrophoretic media can be produced using gaseous suspending fluids; see, for example, Kitamura, T., et al., “Electrical toner movement for electronic paper-like display”, IDW Japan, 2001, Paper HCS1-1, and Yamaguchi, Y, et al., “Toner display using insulative particles charged triboelectrically”, IDW Japan, 2001, Paper AMD4-4). See also European Patent Applications 1,429,178; 1,462,847; and 1,482,354; and International Applications WO 2004/090626; WO 2004/079442; WO 2004/077140; WO 2004/059379; WO 2004/055586; WO 2004/008239; WO 2004/006006; WO 2004/001498; WO 03/091799; and WO 03/088495. Such gas-based electrophoretic media appear to be susceptible to the same types of problems due to particle settling as liquid-based electrophoretic media, when the media are used in an orientation which permits such settling, for example in a sign where the medium is disposed in a vertical plane. Indeed, particle settling appears to be a more serious problem in gas-based electrophoretic media than in liquid-based ones, since the lower viscosity of gaseous suspending fluids as compared with liquid ones allows more rapid settling of the electrophoretic particles.
Numerous patents and applications assigned to or in the names of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and E Ink Corporation have recently been published describing encapsulated electrophoretic media. Such encapsulated media comprise numerous small capsules, each of which itself comprises an internal phase containing electrophoretically-mobile particles suspended in a liquid suspending medium, and a capsule wall surrounding the internal phase. Typically, the capsules are themselves held within a polymeric binder to form a coherent layer positioned between two electrodes. Encapsulated media of this type are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,930,026; 5,961,804; 6,017,584; 6,067,185; 6,118,426; 6,120,588; 6,120,839; 6,124,851; 6,130,773; 6,130,774; 6,172,798; 6,177,921; 6,232,950; 6,249,271; 6,252,564; 6,262,706; 6,262,833; 6,300,932; 6,312,304; 6,312,971; 6,323,989; 6,327,072; 6,376,828; 6,377,387; 6,392,785; 6,392,786; 6,413,790; 6,422,687; 6,445,374; 6,445,489; 6,459,418; 6,473,072; 6,480,182; 6,498,114; 6,504,524; 6,506,438; 6,512,354; 6,515,649; 6,518,949; 6,521,489; 6,531,997; 6,535,197; 6,538,801; 6,545,291; 6,580,545; 6,639,578; 6,652,075; 6,657,772; 6,664,944; 6,680,725; 6,683,333; 6,704,133; 6,710,540; 6,721,083; 6,727,881; 6,738,050; 6,750,473; 6,753,999; 6,816,147; 6,819,471; 6,822,782; 6,825,068; 6,825,829; 6,825,970; 6,831,769; 6,839,158; 6,842,279; 6,842,657; and 6,842,167; and U.S. Patent Applications Publication Nos. 2002/0060321; 2002/0060321; 2002/0063661; 2002/0090980; 2002/0113770; 2002/0130832; 2002/0131147; 2002/0171910; 2002/0180687; 2002/0180688; 2003/0011560; 2003/0020844; 2003/0025855; 2003/0102858; 2003/0132908; 2003/0137521; 2003/0151702; 2003/0214695; 2003/0214697; 2003/0222315; 2004/0012839; 2004/0014265; 2004/0027327; 2004/0075634; 2004/0094422; 2004/0105036; 2004/0112750; 2004/0119681; and 2004/0196215; 2004/0226820; 2004/0233509; 2004/0239614; 2004/0252360; 2004/0257635; 2004/0263947; 2005/0000813; 2005/0001812; 2005/0007336; 2005/0007653; 2005/0012980; 2005/0017944; 2005/0018273; and 2005/0024353; and International Applications Publication Nos. WO 99/67678; WO 00/05704; WO 00/38000; WO 00/38001; WO 00/36560; WO 00/67110; WO 00/67327; WO 01/07961; WO 01/08241; WO 03/107,315; WO 2004/023195; WO 2004/049045; WO 2004/059378; WO 2004/088002; WO 2004/088395; WO 2004/090857; and WO 2004/099862.
Another type of electro-optic display is an electro-wetting display developed by Philips and described in Haves, R. A., et al., “Video-Speed Electronic Paper Based on Electrowetting”, Nature, Vol. 425, pages 383-385 (25 Sep. 2003). It is shown in copending application Ser. No. 10/711,802, filed Oct. 6, 2004 (Publication No. 2005/0151709), that such electro-wetting displays can be made bistable.
Many of the aforementioned patents and applications recognize that the walls surrounding the discrete microcapsules in an encapsulated electrophoretic medium could be replaced by a continuous phase, thus producing a so-called polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display, in which the electrophoretic medium comprises a plurality of discrete droplets of an electrophoretic fluid and a continuous phase of a polymeric material, and that the discrete droplets of electrophoretic fluid within such a polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display may be regarded as capsules or microcapsules even though no discrete capsule membrane is associated with each individual droplet; see for example, the aforementioned 2002/0131147. Accordingly, for purposes of the present application, such polymer-dispersed electrophoretic media are regarded as sub-species of encapsulated electrophoretic media.
A related type of electrophoretic display is a so-called “microcell electrophoretic display”. In a microcell electrophoretic display, the charged particles and the suspending fluid are not encapsulated within microcapsules but instead are retained within a plurality of cavities formed within a carrier medium, typically a polymeric film. See, for example, International Application Publication No. WO 02/01281, and published US Application No. 2002/0075556, both assigned to Sipix Imaging, Inc.
Another type of electro-optic display is an electro-wetting display developed by Philips and described in an article in the Sep. 25, 2003 issue of the Journal “Nature” and entitled “Performing Pixels: Moving Images on Electronic Paper”. It is shown in copending application Ser. No. 10/711,802, filed Oct. 6, 2004, that such electro-wetting displays can be made bistable.
Other types of electro-optic materials, for example, polymer-dispersed liquid crystal, may also be used in the displays of the present invention.
Although electrophoretic media are often opaque (since, for example, in many electrophoretic media, the particles substantially block transmission of visible light through the display) and operate in a reflective mode, many electrophoretic displays can be made to operate in a so-called “shutter mode” in which one display state is substantially opaque and one is light-transmissive. See, for example, the aforementioned U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,130,774 and 6,172,798, 5,872,552; 6,144,361; 6,271,823; 6,225,971; and 6,184,856. Dielectrophoretic displays, which are similar to electrophoretic displays but rely upon variations in electric field strength, can operate in a similar mode; see U.S. Pat. No. 4,418,346. Other types of electro-optic displays may also be capable of operating in shutter mode.
An encapsulated or microcell electrophoretic display typically does not suffer from the clustering and settling failure mode of traditional electrophoretic devices and provides further advantages, such as the ability to print or coat the display on a wide variety of flexible and rigid substrates. (Use of the word “printing” is intended to include all forms of printing and coating, including, but without limitation: pre-metered coatings such as patch die coating, slot or extrusion coating, slide or cascade coating, curtain coating; roll coating such as knife over roll coating, forward and reverse roll coating; gravure coating; dip coating; spray coating; meniscus coating; spin coating; brush coating; air knife coating; silk screen printing processes; electrostatic printing processes; thermal printing processes; ink jet printing processes; electrophoretic deposition; and other similar techniques.) Thus, the resulting display can be flexible. Further, because the display medium can be printed (using a variety of methods), the display itself can be made inexpensively.
In addition to the layer of electro-optic material, an electro-optic display normally comprises at least two other layers disposed on opposed sides of the electro-optic material, one of these two layers being an electrode layer. In most such displays both the layers are electrode layers, and one or both of the electrode layers are patterned to define the pixels of the display. For example, one electrode layer may be patterned into elongate row electrodes and the other into elongate column electrodes running at right angles to the row electrodes, the pixels being defined by the intersections of the row and column electrodes. Alternatively, and more commonly, one electrode layer has the form of a single continuous electrode and the other electrode layer is patterned into a matrix of pixel electrodes, each of which defines one pixel of the display. In another type of electro-optic display, which is intended for use with a stylus, print head or similar movable electrode separate from the display, only one of the layers adjacent the electro-optic layer comprises an electrode, the layer on the opposed side of the electro-optic layer typically being a protective layer intended to prevent the movable electrode damaging the electro-optic layer.
The manufacture of a three-layer electro-optic display normally involves at least one lamination operation. For example, in several of the aforementioned MIT and E Ink patents and applications, there is described a process for manufacturing an encapsulated electrophoretic display in which an encapsulated electrophoretic medium comprising capsules in a binder is coated on to a flexible substrate comprising indium-tin-oxide or a similar conductive coating (which acts as an one electrode of the final display) on a plastic film, the capsules/binder coating being dried to form a coherent layer of the electrophoretic medium firmly adhered to the substrate. Separately, a backplane, containing an array of pixel electrodes and an appropriate arrangement of conductors to connect the pixel electrodes to drive circuitry, is prepared. To form the final display, the substrate having the capsule/binder layer thereon is laminated to the backplane using a lamination adhesive. (A very similar process can be used to prepare an electrophoretic display useable with a stylus or similar movable electrode by replacing the backplane with a simple protective layer, such as a plastic film, over which the stylus or other movable electrode can slide.) In one preferred form of such a process, the backplane is itself flexible and is prepared by printing the pixel electrodes and conductors on a plastic film or other flexible substrate. The obvious lamination technique for mass production of displays by this process is roll lamination using a lamination adhesive. Similar manufacturing techniques can be used with other types of electro-optic displays. For example, a microcell electrophoretic medium or a rotating bichromal member medium may be laminated to a backplane in substantially the same manner as an encapsulated electrophoretic medium.
In the processes described above, the lamination of the substrate carrying the electro-optic layer to the backplane may advantageously be carried out by vacuum lamination. Vacuum lamination is effective in expelling air from between the two materials being laminated, thus avoiding unwanted air bubbles in the final display; such air bubbles may introduce undesirable artifacts in the images produced on the display. However, vacuum lamination of the two parts of an electro-optic display in this manner imposes stringent requirements upon the lamination adhesive used, especially in the case of a display using an encapsulated electrophoretic medium. The lamination adhesive must have sufficient adhesive strength to bind the electro-optic layer to the layer (typically an electrode layer) to which it is to be laminated, and in the case of an encapsulated electrophoretic medium, the adhesive must also have sufficient adhesive strength to mechanically hold the capsules together. If the electro-optic display is to be of a flexible type (and one of the important advantages of rotating bichromal member and encapsulated electrophoretic displays is that they can be made flexible), the adhesive must have sufficient flexibility not to introduce defects into the display when the display is flexed. The lamination adhesive must have adequate flow properties at the lamination temperature to ensure high quality lamination, and in this regard, the demands of laminating encapsulated electrophoretic and some other types of electro-optic media are unusually difficult; the lamination has be conducted at a temperature of not more than about 110° C. since the medium cannot be exposed to substantially higher temperatures without damage, but the flow of the adhesive must cope with the relatively uneven surface of the capsule-containing layer, the surface of which is rendered irregular by the underlying capsules. The lamination temperature should indeed be kept as low as possible, and room temperature lamination would be ideal, but no commercial adhesive has been found which permits such room temperature lamination. The lamination adhesive must be chemically compatible with all the other materials in the display. Solvent-based lamination adhesives should be avoided; it has been found (although this does not appear to have been described in the literature), that any solvent left behind in the adhesive after lamination has a strong tendency to introduce undesirable contaminants into the electro-optic medium.
As discussed in detail in the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,831,769, a lamination adhesive used in an electro-optic display must meet certain electrical criteria, and this introduces considerable problems in the selection of the lamination adhesive. Commercial manufacturers of lamination adhesives naturally devote considerable effort to ensuring that properties, such as strength of adhesion and lamination temperatures, of such adhesives are adjusted so that the adhesives perform well in their major applications, which typically involve laminating polymeric and similar films. However, in such applications, the electrical properties of the lamination adhesive are not relevant, and consequently the commercial manufacturers pay no heed to such electrical properties. Indeed, E Ink researchers have observed substantial variations (of up to several fold) in certain electrical properties between different batches of the same commercial lamination adhesive, presumably because the manufacturer was attempting to optimize non-electrical properties of the lamination adhesive (for example, resistance to bacterial growth) and was not at all concerned about resulting changes in electrical properties.
However, in electro-optic displays, in which the lamination adhesive is normally located between the electrodes which apply the electric field needed to change the electrical state of the electro-optic medium, the electrical properties of the adhesive become crucial. As will be apparent to electrical engineers, the volume resistivity of the lamination adhesive becomes important, since the voltage drop across the electro-optic medium is essentially equal to the voltage drop across the electrodes, minus the voltage drop across the lamination adhesive. If the resistivity of the adhesive layer is too high, a substantial voltage drop will occur within the adhesive layer, requiring an increase in voltage across the electrodes. Increasing the voltage across the electrodes in this manner is undesirable, since it increases the power consumption of the display, and may require the use of more complex and expensive control circuitry to handle the increased voltage involved. On the other hand, if the adhesive layer, which extends continuously across the display, is in contact with a matrix of electrodes, as in an active matrix display, the volume resistivity of the adhesive layer should not be too low, or lateral conduction of electric current through the continuous adhesive layer may cause undesirable cross-talk between adjacent electrodes.
In practice, a lamination adhesive layer having a uniform thickness of 10-50 μm and a conductivity of the order of 10−10 to 10−9 S/cm has been used in electro-optic displays. This conductivity range was chosen based upon electrical models for display performance, the known conductivities of various electro-optic materials and the pixel sizes typically used in such displays. This target conductivity range actually represents a compromise. More conductive lamination adhesives are desirable because higher conductivity means the electro-optic material layer sees a larger voltage gradient. However, as the conductivity of the lamination adhesive is increased at constant pixel resolution and storage capacitance, charge supplied to a pixel is leaked to neighboring pixels; this decreases the voltage gradient across the ink and counteracts the effect of increasing the lamination adhesive conductivity. In addition, as already mentioned this lateral charge leakage may cause a change in the optical state of neighboring pixels. It is desirable that the lamination adhesive be designed to provide good lateral voltage holding capability and that the gradient in voltage across the ink layer be maximized; therefore, development performance requirements for high resolution (100 to 200 lines per inch, 4 to 8 lines per mm) active-matrix displays require that isotropically conductive adhesives have conductivities in the range specified above.
There is another problem associated with the use of adhesives in electro-optic displays, namely pixel “blooming”, that is to say the tendency for a pixel electrode to cause a change in the display state of the electro-optic medium over an area larger than that occupied by the pixel electrode itself. This blooming effect is illustrated schematically in FIG. 1A of the accompanying drawings, which shows the equipotential lines caused by application of driving voltage to two adjacent pixel electrodes of an electro-optic display. As will be seen from FIG. 1A, the equipotential lines spread outwardly as distance from the pixel electrode increases, and since the area within which a driving voltage applied to a pixel electrode causes a change in the display state of the electro-optic medium follows the equipotential lines, if (say) pixel 1, the left-hand pixel is FIG. 1A has applied thereto a driving voltage which turns the electro-optic medium to its black display state (as seen by an observer viewing the medium from above in FIG. 1A), the resultant black area, designated D1, is substantially larger than pixel 1 itself. Similarly, if pixel 2, the right-hand pixel is FIG. 1A has applied thereto a driving voltage which turns the electro-optic medium to its black display state, the resultant black area, designated D2, is substantially larger than pixel 2 itself. A central area between pixels 1 and 2 will turn black whenever the driving voltage is applied to either pixel 1 or pixel 2. Such pixel blooming is undesirable, since it adversely affects the quality of the displayed image.
Pixel blooming can be reduced by reducing the thickness of the adhesive layer, but an adhesive layer which is too thin may give rise to other problems. For example, an adhesive layer which is deposited over a layer of capsules forming an encapsulated electrophoretic medium may serve not only to laminate the capsules to a backplane, but also to planarize the uneven surface of the layer of capsules. An adhesive layer which is too thin may fail to provide sufficient adhesion and may also fail to planarize the capsule layer. Hence, it is not desirable to reduce the thickness of the adhesive layer too far, and the thickness chosen may be a compromise between that needed to reduce pixel blooming and that required for planarization and good adhesion.
The aforementioned 2004/0252360 describes an electro-optic display using an anisotropic lamination adhesive having a higher electrical conductivity in a direction perpendicular to the layer of lamination adhesive than in the plane of this layer. One aspect of the present invention relates to an alternative modification of an adhesive layer which provides advantages similar to those provided by the use of an anisotropic lamination adhesive without requiring the formation of such an adhesive. This aspect of the present invention also reduces pixel blooming.
Although blooming has been described above as a problem in electro-optic displays, there are certain circumstances in which a controlled amount of blooming may actually be useful, and a second aspect of the present invention relates to providing electro-optic displays with such controlled blooming.
Certain types of electro-optic displays, especially so-called “direct drive displays” (in which a plurality of pixels are present, each pixel having a pixel electrode and a separate conductor associated therewith, the display having a controller arranged to control the voltage applied to each pixel electrode via its associated conductor), are often produced using low resolution processes which leave significant gaps between adjacent pixels; such displays may, for example, have the form of seven-segment displays used to display numerals. In such displays, it is advantageous for the electro-optic medium to display a controlled amount of blooming, such that the area of electro-optic medium the optical state of which is changed by the pixel electrodes covers the gap between adjacent pixel electrodes so that these gaps effectively disappear when an observer views the resultant display. However, the blooming should not be so great that the image intended to be displayed becomes distorted. The second main aspect of the present invention relates to methods for achieving such controlled blooming in electro-optic displays.